“There were still a few boats left on the beach that day, But the DFO came and burned them.” - Ray Williams, Goo-Noom- Tuuk- Tomlth, Indiginews Interview.
Did you know that Indigenous peoples have managed fisheries and ocean sustainability for thousands of years before the Canadian state took over? Indigenous peoples in Canada have a deep, spiritual, and reciprocal relationship with fish and marine ecosystems that was greatly disrupted by colonial acquisition. This relationship is not merely about sustenance but encompasses cultural practices, traditional knowledge, and a holistic understanding of ecological balance. Fish, particularly salmon, play a central role in many Indigenous cultures from coast to coast, featuring prominently in ceremonies, stories, and sustainable harvesting practices that have been passed down through generations.
However, colonization has severely disrupted this harmonious relationship, leading to devastating consequences for both Indigenous communities and marine ecosystems. The imposition of colonial fishing regulations, the establishment of commercial fisheries, and the forced relocation of Indigenous peoples from their traditional territories have undermined Indigenous sovereignty and their ability to practice traditional fishing customs. This disruption has not only affected the cultural and economic independence of Indigenous communities but has also contributed to the degradation of marine ecosystems. The loss of traditional ecological knowledge and sustainable practices has, in many cases, led to overfishing and habitat destruction, highlighting the interconnectedness of Indigenous sovereignty and environmental health.
“Salmon on Driftwood” by Rod Smith (Kwakwaka’wakw)
Indigenous relationships with salmon are built on thousands of years of sustainable practices and cultural narratives, which highlight respect and reciprocity toward an essential resource. Across many coastal Indigenous nations, salmon serves not only as a dietary staple but also as a cultural and spiritual cornerstone, with traditional stories emphasizing collective stewardship and responsible management.
One prominent example is the Coyote and Salmon story, found among several Indigenous communities in British Columbia’s interior, including the unceded territories of the Thompson River Nation, which had a recount collected by Canada’s Energy Regulator. In their telling, Coyote—a revered and often transformative figure—observes the absence of salmon in the rivers. On investigating, he finds that three sisters have constructed a dam at the river’s mouth, hoarding the salmon for themselves and preventing their migration upstream. Disguising himself as an infant, Coyote ingeniously gains access to the sisters’ domain and begins a series of magical acts that ultimately dismantle the dam. Once the river is open, he declares that the salmon will return every year during this season, ensuring the prosperity and sustenance of the people along the river. This story symbolizes the importance of salmon access for all and the responsibility to protect natural cycles that sustain communities.
Similarly, stories from the lower Chinookan region in the US, such as those collected by Suzan Crawford O’Brien in Native Foodways: Indigenous North American Religious Traditions and Foods **, further illustrate the cultural ethics surrounding salmon on the Pacific coast. Though this story is specifically in US regions, cultural values on the Pacific coast were widely adopted by many nations, and the central themes remain fairly consistent. In one account, Coyote catches salmon but fails to observe proper practices; he does not allow enough salmon to continue upstream to spawn, nor does he handle the fish with respect, preparing it incorrectly. As a result, the salmon do not return to the river. This tale serves as a cautionary lesson on the importance of adherence to respectful, sustainable fishing methods that ensure the resource’s renewal. It also highlights the reciprocal relationship between the salmon and the peoples, showing that the salmon will not return if we handle them irresponsibly.
These narratives reflect the deeply ingrained values that Indigenous communities place on sustainable fishing practices, which have been passed down through generations. Indigenous stewardship models, embedded in such traditions, prioritize ecological balance and respect for natural resources, standing in stark contrast to the extractive practices that accompanied colonial expansion. The disruption of these practices by colonial settlers not only disregarded Indigenous knowledge systems but also contributed to the ecological degradation that continues to affect fish populations and ocean health today. The lessons from these stories underscore the importance of integrating Indigenous perspectives into contemporary resource management and conservation strategies, honouring these long-standing practices in the ongoing work of environmental stewardship.
Depiction of the Sacred Coyote Canoeing up Interior Rivers
Indigenous fishing rights in Canada have a complex legal history, rooted in early treaties and shaped by landmark court cases. The Peace and Friendship treaties, signed between 1725 and 1779, aimed to foster cooperative relations by acknowledging Indigenous rights to traditional activities, including fishing. However, these treaties left many key terms undefined, such as the specific areas Indigenous communities could access. As a result, divergent interpretations led to misunderstandings and conflicts, setting the stage for ongoing legal challenges.
The Friendship Treaties (1725-1779)
In 1999, the Supreme Court of Canada reversed the convictions against Donald Marshall Jr. (second from right) for illegal fishing. The Marshall decision recognized Mi’kmaw rights promised in the Peace and Friendship Treaties. Photo by Andrew Vaughan/The Canadian Press
A series of important cases hav since defined the scope of Indigenous fishing rights. In R. v. Sparrow (1990), the Supreme Court affirmed the constitutionally protected rights of Indigenous people to fish for food, social, and ceremonial purposes, establishing that the government must consult First Nations before enacting restrictions on these rights. In R. v. Van der Peet (1996), however, the court ruled that activities claimed as Indigenous rights must have been integral to Indigenous culture before European contact, leading to critiques that this “integral to culture” test disregards cultural evolution. While many rights of Indigenous peoples that are protected do have a long history, this specific precedent is a problem because it expects Indigenous cultures to not adopt any new practices over time, claiming that anything that has been adapted to modern technology is unprotected. In R. v. Marshall (1999), the court further acknowledged the Mi’kmaq’s right to fish commercially to earn a “moderate livelihood”. The term unfortunately remains undefined, which has not helped the clash between settler and indigenous fisheries who view the other as competition. These court rulings have laid the foundation for Indigenous land use and fishing rights, but enforcement challenges, limited public awareness, and periodic violence against Indigenous fishers underscore the need for stronger protections and collaboration among communities, regulators, and the fishing industry.
Colonial acquisition of land in Canada disrupted Indigenous sovereignty and culture, particularly affecting traditional practices like fishing, which held deep cultural and spiritual significance. Indigenous peoples had sustainably managed fisheries for generations through practices that respected ecological balance, ensuring salmon reached spawning grounds and observing specific times of day for fishing. This connection to Canada’s land, waterways, and animals was essential not only for sustaining their physical bodies but also for maintaining cultural continuity. However, colonial overfishing and damn construction disregarded these practices, leading to severe salmon population declines, ecological damage, and, ultimately, erosion of Indigenous sovereignty and self-sufficiency. Heartbreaking accounts of the violent acquisition of Indigenous fisheries can be found in an interview with Ray Williams (Goo-noom Tuuk- Tomlth) done by Indiginews.
As colonial governments prioritized commercial fishing, Indigenous communities lost access to resources essential for survival and ceremonial practices. Restrictions and criminalization of traditional methods undermined community structures, and with salmon runs diminishing due to colonial overreach, several Indigenous nations in Canada’s interior who relied on salmon were left unable to sustain themselves without colonial aid. This dynamic caused a deep cultural disintegration as sacred ceremonies tied to fishing could no longer be performed, weakening the transmission of traditional knowledge. Today, efforts to regain sovereignty over fishing rights are part of broader movements for land reclamation and cultural revival, highlighting the long-lasting impact of colonial dispossession on Indigenous ways of life. Though many legal cases now recognize Indigenous fishing rights, and the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans is working closely with Indigenous communities to revitalize traditional fishing practices for sustainable oceans, conflicts remain. Some commercial fishing industries feel threatened by the protections granted to Indigenous fisheries, leading to incidents of violence and racism directed at Indigenous-run fisheries.
Even though Canada as a country is in an era of reconciliation, violent attacks on Indigenous sovereignty still play out all across the nation. The business of commercial fishing has felt this tension significantly as some claim that Indigenous protections for fishing rights are interfering with their own businesses. Unfortunately, indigenous-owned and operated fisheries have a history of being violently attacked by settler competition in the name of “unequal rights” over fish and the oceans. While legislation to protect indigenous fishing rights has largely been viewed as a positive experience for Indigenous communities, they have also noticed an increase in violence from jealous settler fishers who would prefer equal rights over equitable rights.